XPS is a well-established technique used for non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition of thin layers and interfaces. It is most commonly performed using Al Kα radiation (1486.6 eV), which limits the analysis to the top 5-10nm. The recently developed laboratory-based hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopes (HAXPES) provide new analysis options. They enable the analysis of thicker film structures and interfaces buried down to 20-50 nm depending on the photon energy and facilitate the analysis of fragile buried layers without ion-induced chemical damage.

Increasing the number of analyzed (insulating) layers enhances the risk of significant vertical differential charging and makes the repeatability of binding energy determination more challenging. While charging has to be taken into account for XPS, the analysis of most XPS spectra is quite straightforward as long as the surface charge is stable and the lateral distribution of surface charge is uniform within the area of analysis. For HAXPES however vertical charge distribution comes into the game for a large group of structures whose development can benefit from HAXPES analysis. Vertical charge build-up can be complex, especially if examined structures exist of multiple layers and hence multiple interfaces, containing a large variety of materials. But even in ‘simple’ non-conducting one-layer structures a vertical charge gradient builds up when exposed to X-rays and small changes in the parameters of standard surface charge neutralization techniques - as the use of e-beam flood guns - can influence the nature of the charge gradient.

In this work, we will examine the influence of measurement conditions in single and multiple layers systems relevant to the microelectronic industry on the determination of precise binding energies.

HAXPES spectra of technologically relevant samples will be discussed to demonstrate the challenge of determining exact binding energy values. The set of examined samples comprises oxide layers Si samples and metal/high-k/Si stacks including high-k materials as HfO₂ and Al₂O₃. The surface potential will be precisely set and monitored in situ by depositing a metallic layer (such as Ag) on top of the stack and applying an external potential instead of using an electron neutralization source. All experiments are performed in a PHI Quantes system and/or a Scienta Omicron HAXPES Lab, both equipped with two monochromatic X-ray sources: an Al Kα (1486.6 eV) and a Cr Kα (5414.8 eV - Quantes) or Ga Kα (9252.1 eV – HAXPES lab) X-ray source.

Robust peak identification is crucial for accurate sample analysis using X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS). Automation of peak ID enhances this process by minimizing user error and bias. Current acquisition software offers improved computer-derived peak identification from unknown samples, instilling confidence in the correct identification of elements. Moreover, this forms the foundation for an automated sample analysis workflow known as Data-dependent Analysis (DDA). DDA involves identifying peaks in a survey spectrum and subsequently acquiring high-resolution spectra from major components. A recent User survey revealed that a significant majority of users rely on the large area survey acquisition mode as a starting point for analysis.

To provide a metric for confidence in the DDA process, existing spectral analysis data, which includes the element composition information, is used to generate reference spectra for testing purposes. These reference spectra serve as the basis dataset against which the performance of the automated analysis algorithm can be evaluated. By comparing the results of the algorithm with the reference spectra, statistical parameters can be calculated to assess the algorithm's precision, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy in identifying elements of unknown spectra.

For experienced analysts, DDA serves as a time-saving acquisition method, while for inexperienced analysts, it provides assurance in accurate peak identification and appropriate high-resolution spectra acquisition. Here we highlight current status of automated XPS data acquisition in relationship to the ‘expert system’, championed in the early 2000’s and full AI interpretation of XPS spectra of the future.

We present progress towards quantitative analysis of XPS data using both model-based “fitting” approaches and machine learning methods. Two separate applications are considered.

The first concerns the simultaneous extraction of both compositional profiles and sputtering parameters from XPS sputter depth-profiles of multilayer films. Depth-profile data are routinely processed to provide “fractional composition vs ion dose” profiles, but such analyses typically assume the sample is homogeneous in the probed region, which is not true near interfaces, and cannot precisely convert between units of ion dose and depth without extensive calibration data. Our approach is to first construct analytical models for both the sample structure and for the sputtering process, and then to determine the model parameters (layer thicknesses, interfacial widths, material removal rates, etc.) that are most likely given the observed apparent fractional composition profiles. This is done numerically, by iteratively comparing simulated and observed apparent composition profiles. The only additional required inputs are the inelastic mean free paths for each tracked peak in each material present. The efficacy of this approach is demonstrated using both synthetic and experimental data sets, and various model improvements (sputter-induced mixing, in situ chemical reactions) are discussed.

The second application concerns the application of machine-learning tools to remove the inelastic scattering background from XPS spectra in order that accurate peak areas can be obtained. Our approach here is to generate a training data set which consists of a thousands of simulated XPS spectra with and without inelastic scattering included. This is accomplished using the SESSA software package[1]. This data set is then used to train a neural network algorithm to output a “no-background” spectrum from an input “with-background” spectrum; this output spectrum can then be used to compute peak areas for compositional analysis. The training set generation methodology and network structure are discussed, and application of the tool to both simulated and experimental spectra is demonstrated.

[1] Werner, W. , Smekal, W. , Powell, C. and Gorham, J. (2021), Simulation of Electron Spectra for Surface Analysis (SESSA) Version 2.2 User's Guide, Natl Std. Ref. Data Series (NIST NSRDS), https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.NSRDS.100-2021.

Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are materials consisting of organic salts that are liquid below temperatures of 100°C and are used in several fields including electrochemistry,¹ pharmaceutics, and medicine.² RTILs have several notable properties that make them ideal for X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. They have an extremely low vapor pressure and high surface tension, and so can be analysed using conventional XPS under ultrahigh vacuum without the need for near-ambient pressure instrumentation. Also, when deposited in a recessed sample holder, the meniscus of an RTIL will be perfectly flat meaning that there are no contributions from sample topographic effects. Finally, and most importantly, they are highly homogeneous and have well-defined stoichiometries.³

These properties make RTILs potential reference materials for validating the intensity calibration of a photoelectron spectrometer. RTILs with non-coordinating bistriflimide (NTf₂) anions (e.g. PMIM⁺NTf₂^–) or dimethyl phosphate (DMP) anions (e.g. MMIM⁺DMP^–) are such candidates, with core levels up to ∼800 eV binding energy, making them apt for verifying the quantification of light elements, especially for organic materials.^4,5

To accurately determine peak areas, however, requires the principal and secondary photoelectron signals to be deconvolved. Previous attempts by multiple laboratories using different quantification methods give a mean atomic composition within 1 at.% of the known stoichiometry, but some individual elements (such as fluorine) exhibit differences greater than 1 at.% because the elastic and inelastic secondaries are not suitably deconvolved. Attention must be paid to the energy loss function that defines the inelastic background over the full energy range of an XPS spectrum so that a suitable Tougaard background subtraction can be applied.⁶ Here we present a study on several RTILs and discuss how they may be used to validate an XPS intensity calibration and provide confidence in measurements to XPS instrument operators.

¹M. Armand, F. Endres, D. R. MacFarlane et al., Nat. Mater.8, 621 (2009).

²K. S. Egorova, E. G. Gordeev, and V. P. Ananikov, Chem. Rev. 117, 7132 (2017).

³E. F. Smith, I. J. Villar Garcia, D. Briggs et al., Chem. Commun. 45, 5633 (2005).

⁴B.P. Reed, J. Radnik, and A.G. Shard, Surf. Sci. Spectra29, 014001 (2022).

⁵X. Knigge and J. Radnik, Surf. Sci. Spectra30, 014006 (2023).

⁶M. P. Seah, I. S. Gilmore, and S. J. Spencer, Surf. Sci. 461, 1 (2000).

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a well-established technique for non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition of thin layers and interfaces. Angle-resolved XPS (AR-XPS) has been used to determine composition of depth profiles and layer thicknesses, traditionally with Al Kα (1486.6 eV) X-ray beams for depths up to 5-10 nm below the surface. In recent years, new AR-XPS capabilities have been added to Physical Electronics XPS scanning microprobe instruments including Cr Kα (5414.8 eV) hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) that can probe buried interfaces up to 15-30 nm below the surface. Coinciding with the HAXPES development, the StrataPHI analysis software was developed to reconstruct quantitative, non-destructive XPS/HAXPES depth profiles from angle-dependent and single-angle photoelectron spectra.

In this talk, we will show that the StrataPHI software has been further developed to combine Al Kα and Cr Kα XPS and HAXPES data within a single depth profile to enhance extracted analytical information from various depths below the surface. We will explore the method of the combined technique as well as its application to multilayered thin film samples. The updated StrataPHI software also includes a fractional coverage analysis mode, relevant in situations where ultra-thin films exist as discrete islands – commonly observed in early thin-film deposition stages on the substrate rather than as a continuous, uniform film. A model system of discrete molybdenum sulfide (MoS2) monolayer triangles deposited on SiO2/Si substrate will be discussed.

Such added StrataPHI capabilities allow for scientists and engineers in metrology and research & development to analyze multi-layered thin films and ultra-thin films rapidly and non-destructively without potentially damaging ion beam sputtering that might otherwise be required to depth-profile or sputter-clean adventitious contamination off the surface.

Complex metallic materials such as Multi-Principal Alloys (MPEAs) and High Entropy Alloys (HEAs) have emerged as a promising class of materials given their unique inherent characteristics. Excellent mechanical, thermal, and corrosion properties allow for a broad spectrum of applications. However, due to the multi-element nature of these alloys, characterisation of the composition and microstructure proves to be a challenging task.

Especially with regard to corrosion-protective passivation films, the complex correlations with the corrosion behaviour are fully unclear to date, and require an in-depth atomic level characterisation and rationalisation. However, the precise layer by layer structure of such passive films is particularly demanding to assess, since traditional techniques such as XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) or AES (Auger electron spectroscopy) have analysis penetration depths of several nanometres and cannot reach atomic layer resolution. However, to fully understand and quantify the passivation layer structure, such an atomic layer resolution of the surface region is necessary, due to the complexity of HEAs.

In order to obtain an exact understanding of the atomistic mechanism at the monoatomic layer level, High-Sensitivity - Low Energy Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (HS-LEIS), was applied, which provides the required monolayer sensitive resolution to study the passivation layers of such complex multi-component alloys. The unique surface sensitivity combined with the implementation of in-situ treatment methods enabled the real-time study of oxide layer growth, as well as the analysis of temperature-dependent changes in the elemental surface composition. Due to the high resolution achieved by static and dynamic sputter depth profile modes, we could determine the exact composition of the HEA passivation layer with resolution on atomic monolayer scale.